The Troubadour Tradition of Medieval France

The troubadour tradition of southern France was one of the most influential literary movements of the High Middle Ages, and it had a profound impact on the development of European literature and culture. The troubadours composed in Old Occitan (the language of the troubadours, also called Provençal or Langue d’oc), and they sang of chivalry, courtly love, and aristocratic values. The troubadour tradition emerged in the late eleventh century and flourished until the early thirteenth century, and it influenced literary traditions across Europe. The troubadour tradition invented the poetry of romantic love, and it contributed to the development of the romance as a literary form, the chanson as a musical form, and the sonnet as a poetic form. The troubadour tradition remains a major subject of literary and cultural study in the modern era.

The standard English-language introduction is Simon Gaunt and Sarah Kay (eds.), “The Troubadours: An Introduction” (Cambridge, 1999). The Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, MS Vat. lat. 3207, is the most important surviving chansonnier. The page below treats the canso, the sirventes, the fin’amor, and the diffusion of the troubadour tradition through northern France, Italy, and Germany.

The Origins of the Troubadour Tradition

The origins of the troubadour tradition are rooted in the cultural and political conditions of southern France in the late eleventh century. The southern French region (the Languedoc and the Provence) was a culturally and economically advanced area, with its own language (Occitan), its own political institutions (the courts of the great lords), and its own literary traditions. The region was at the crossroads of European trade, and it was a major center of commerce, learning, and culture.

The earliest known troubadour was Guilhem IX, Duke of Aquitaine (1071–1127), who composed in a style that anticipated the later development of the tradition. Guilhem was a major political figure of his time, and his poetry is preserved in the manuscripts of the troubadour tradition. The second major troubadour was Cercamon (c. 1100), who composed in a style that established the basic patterns of the troubadour tradition.

The troubadour tradition developed rapidly in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, and the great troubadours of the period — Jaufre Rudel (c. 1140), Marcabru (c. 1130), Bernart de Ventadorn (c. 1150–1200), Raimbaut d’Aurenga (c. 1144–1173), Arnaut Daniel (fl. 1180–1200), Guiraut de Bornelh (c. 1138–1215), and others — produced a rich and varied body of poetry that has been the subject of much literary and linguistic study.

The Poetry of the Troubadours

The poetry of the troubadours was composed in a variety of forms that were designed for musical performance. The major forms included the canso (a love song), the sirventes (a satirical or moralizing poem), the tenson (a debate poem), the pastourelle (a poem in which a knight meets a shepherdess), the alba (a dawn song in which lovers part at daybreak), the balada (a dance song), and the partimen (a poem in which two poets debate a question). Each form had its own formal conventions, and the troubadours developed a sophisticated vocabulary and a sophisticated theory of poetry to support their compositions.

The canso (or canzo) was the most important form of the troubadour tradition, and it was the form that most troubadours preferred. The canso was a love song in which the troubadour praised his lady and expressed his devotion. The canso was typically composed in a refined and elegant style, with attention to the formal qualities of clarity, conciseness, and elegance. The canso was a major influence on the development of the sonnet and the love lyric in European literature.

The sirventes was a satirical or moralizing poem that the troubadour used to comment on political, social, or personal matters. The sirventes could be a vehicle for political commentary, for personal attack, or for moral exhortation. The sirventes was a major form of political poetry in the medieval period, and it was a major influence on the development of satirical and political poetry in the later Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

The alba (or aube) was a dawn song in which the lovers, having spent the night together, must part at daybreak. The alba was a major form of medieval love poetry, and it is one of the most moving forms of the troubadour tradition. The most famous alba is “Can vei la lauzeta mover” (“When I see the lark move”) by Bernart de Ventadorn, which expresses the joy of love and the sorrow of parting. The alba was a major influence on the dawn song tradition in the German Minnesang and the later medieval poetry of Europe.

The Themes of the Troubadour Tradition

The themes of the troubadour tradition were primarily the themes of courtly love and chivalric virtue. The troubadour tradition developed a sophisticated vocabulary and a sophisticated theory of love, and the ideology of courtly love became one of the most influential cultural products of the medieval period. The ideology of courtly love was developed in the treatises of the period — most famously in the De Amore of Andreas Capellanus (c. 1180) — and it was a major influence on the literature, the art, and the social practices of the medieval period.

The central theme of the troubadour tradition was the courtly lover’s devotion to his lady. The lady was typically married to another man, often a powerful lord, and the lover could not possess her. The love was therefore unrequited and impossible, and it was ennobling for the lover. The courtly lover was expected to serve his lady with devotion, to endure suffering for her sake, and to maintain the highest standards of behavior. The courtly love tradition was a major cultural product of the medieval period, and it has been the subject of much literary and cultural study.

The troubadour tradition also celebrated the chivalric virtues: courage, loyalty, generosity, courtesy, and honor. The troubadour was expected to be a good knight as well as a good poet, and the chivalric and poetic ideals were closely intertwined. The troubadour tradition contributed to the development of the code of chivalry and to the elaboration of the chivalric ideal in the medieval period.

The Troubadours and Their Patrons

The troubadours were typically associated with the courts of the great lords of southern France — the counts of Toulouse, the dukes of Aquitaine, the counts of Provence, the counts of Barcelona, and the counts of Foix — and they composed for the patronage of these lords. The troubadour tradition was closely tied to the courtly culture of southern France, and the troubadours were major figures in the social and cultural life of the courts.

The troubadours also composed for the patronage of the queens and princesses of the period, who were major patrons of the troubadour tradition. The queen of France, Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204), was a major patron of the troubadour tradition, and her daughter, Marie de Champagne, was also a major patron. The queens and princesses of the period often maintained their own troubadours and hosted poetic contests in their courts.

The troubadour tradition was also tied to the culture of the courts of the region, and the troubadours were major figures in the courtly society of southern France. The troubadours were often invited to perform at the great feasts and celebrations of the period, and they were major social and cultural figures. The troubadour tradition was a major expression of the courtly culture of the period, and it contributed to the development of the aristocratic ideals of the medieval world.

The Influence of the Troubadour Tradition

The troubadour tradition had a profound influence on the development of European literature and culture. The troubadour tradition influenced the German Minnesang, the Italian Sicilian School, and the English and French romance traditions of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The troubadour tradition was a major influence on the development of the sonnet form, and the sonnet became a major poetic form in the Italian and English literary traditions of the Renaissance.

The troubadour tradition also had a profound influence on the development of the ideology of courtly love, which became one of the most influential cultural products of the medieval period. The ideology of courtly love was a major influence on the literature, the art, and the social practices of the medieval period, and it continues to shape the Western imagination of romantic love in the modern era.

The troubadour tradition also had a major influence on the development of the chivalric ideal. The troubadour celebrated the chivalric virtues and elaborated the code of chivalry, and the chivalric ideal became one of the defining features of the aristocratic culture of the medieval period. The chivalric ideal was a major influence on the development of the aristocratic values of the medieval world, and it continues to shape the Western imagination of knighthood and chivalry in the modern era.

The Decline of the Troubadour Tradition

The decline of the troubadour tradition began in the early thirteenth century, with the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) and the subsequent repression of the culture of southern France by the French crown and the Catholic Church. The Albigensian Crusade devastated the Languedoc and broke the power of the great lords of the region, who had been the major patrons of the troubadour tradition. The French crown gradually extended its control over the region, and the culture of southern France was subordinated to the culture of northern France.

The troubadour tradition continued to exist in reduced form in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, with troubadours like Guilhem Figueira (fl. 1215–1240), Guiraudon (fl. 1220), and Duran Sartor (fl. 1220) composing in the old style. Yet the tradition was no longer the dominant literary movement of the region, and it was gradually replaced by other forms of poetry. The last major troubadour of the tradition was Guilhem Adémar (fl. 1280–1290), and the tradition effectively ended in the late thirteenth century.

The decline of the troubadour tradition was a major cultural event in the history of the medieval world, and it marked the end of an era in the literary history of southern France. The troubadour tradition survived in degraded form in the folk poetry of the region and in the works of the Italian and English poets who drew on the troubadour tradition. The troubadour tradition was a major influence on the Italian Dolce Stil Novo and the works of Dante Alighieri, and it remained a major source of inspiration for European poetry for centuries.

The Legacy of the Troubadours

The legacy of the troubadour tradition is immense. The troubadour tradition invented the poetry of romantic love, and it shaped the Western imagination of love and chivalry for centuries. The troubadour tradition contributed to the development of the romance as a literary form, the chanson as a musical form, and the sonnet as a poetic form. The troubadour tradition shaped the development of European poetry and music for centuries, and it continues to inspire poets and musicians in the modern era.

The troubadour tradition is a major subject of modern literary and cultural study, and the scholarship on the troubadour tradition has illuminated the rich literary and cultural heritage of the medieval world. The troubadour tradition is commemorated in numerous monuments, museums, and cultural events in southern France, and it continues to shape the identity of the region in the modern era. The troubadour tradition is a major subject of French national and regional identity, and it is a subject of ongoing debate in the modern era.

Sources

Principal sources used in this article:

Simon Gaunt and Sarah Kay (eds.), The Troubadours: An Introduction (Cambridge, 1999).

Further reading:

Robert Boenig, The Troubadours: An Introduction (Univ. of Notre Dame, 1996).

For a recent single-volume synthesis with full scholarly apparatus, see the relevant chapter of Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages (University of Toronto Press, 2014).