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The Arthurian legends are among the most enduring literary products of the medieval world. The legends of King Arthur, Lancelot, Ginevra, Tristan and Isolde, Perceval, and the Holy Grail were developed by a series of French, German, and English writers in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and they have been retold countless times in the centuries since. The Arthurian legends have inspired some of the greatest works of medieval literature, including the romances of Chrétien de Troyes, the Parzival of Wolfram von Eschenbach, the Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and the Le Morte d’Arthur of Thomas Malory. The legends continue to inspire writers and filmmakers in the modern era, and they remain a major subject of literary and cultural study.
The standard English-language introduction is Norris J. Lacy (ed.), “The New Arthurian Encyclopedia” (Garland, 1991). Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) and the romances of Chrétien de Troyes (c. 1170–90) are the founding texts of the Matter of Britain. The page below treats the Arthurian cycle from the Welsh mabinogi through the Vulgate Cycle and the English Alliterative Morte Arthure to Malory.
The Origins of the Arthurian Legends
The origins of the Arthurian legends are obscure, and they have been the subject of much scholarly debate. The earliest references to a historical Arthur are found in the Historia Brittonum (c. 830), attributed to Nennius, and in the Annales Cambriae (c. 950), which mention a leader named Arthur who fought against the Saxons in the late fifth and early sixth centuries. The Welsh traditions, including the Mabinogion and the poems of Taliesin and Aneirin, contain references to a hero named Arthur who may have been a historical figure.
The Arthurian legends as we know them were developed in the twelfth century by the Norman and Breton writers of the Anglo-Norman and French literary traditions. The Norman conquest of England in 1066 brought the British and Breton traditions of Arthur to the Norman court, and the Norman and Breton writers developed the Arthurian material in a series of works that became the basis of the Arthurian tradition. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136), a pseudo-historical work that presented Arthur as a major figure in British history, was a major contribution to the development of the tradition.
The Arthurian legends were further developed by the French romancers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, including Chrétien de Troyes, who composed a series of romances in the 1170s and 1180s that transformed the legends into the form that has been inherited by the modern world. The French romancers added new characters (Lancelot, Ginevra, Perceval, Galahad) and new themes (courtly love, the quest for the Holy Grail) to the legends, and they created the Arthurian romance as a major literary form.
The Romance of Chrétien de Troyes
Chrétien de Troyes (c. 1130–c. 1190) was the most important of the French romancers, and his Arthurian romances are the most influential works of medieval Arthurian literature. Chrétien composed five major Arthurian romances: Erec et Enide (c. 1170), Cligès (c. 1176), Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart (c. 1177), Yvain, the Knight of the Lion (c. 1177), and Perceval, the Story of the Grail (c. 1180). These romances established the major characters and themes of the Arthurian tradition, and they became the model for the Arthurian romances of the following centuries.
Erec et Enide is the story of the knight Erec, who marries the beautiful Enide but neglects his chivalric duties in favor of his love. Erec is eventually shamed by his neglect, and he embarks on a series of adventures with Enide that restore his honor and prove his love. The romance is a major example of the theme of the knight’s dilemma between love and chivalric duty.
Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart is the story of the famous love affair between Lancelot and Queen Ginevra (Guinevere), the wife of King Arthur. Lancelot rescues Ginevra from the evil Meleagant, but he is required to ride in a cart (a symbol of shame) to achieve his goal. The romance is a major example of the theme of courtly love and the conflict between love and honor.
Perceval, the Story of the Grail is the story of the young knight Perceval, who encounters the mysterious Fisher King and witnesses the procession of the Grail. The romance is the first major treatment of the Grail theme in the Arthurian tradition, and it was the basis for the later development of the Grail cycle in the French, German, and English romances of the thirteenth century. The romance was left unfinished at Chrétien’s death, and several continuations were written by other authors.
The German Arthurian Romances
The German adaptations of the Arthurian legends are among the most important works of medieval German literature. The German writers adapted the French material to the German cultural and political context, and they produced major works of medieval literature that are still read and studied today. The major German Arthurian romances include:
Parzival (c. 1200–1210) by Wolfram von Eschenbach (c. 1170–c. 1220), one of the greatest works of medieval German literature. The romance is the story of Parzival’s quest for the Holy Grail, and it is a major exploration of the themes of chivalry, courtly love, and spiritual redemption. Wolfram’s Parzival is a major work of medieval literature, and it is the basis for Richard Wagner’s opera Parsifal.
Tristan (c. 1210) by Gottfried von Strassburg (c. 1180–c. 1215), one of the great love stories of medieval literature. The romance is the story of the love affair between Tristan and Isolde, and it is a major exploration of the themes of love, chivalry, and tragedy. Gottfried’s Tristan is a major work of medieval German literature, and it is one of the most important versions of the Tristan legend.
Erec and Iwein (c. 1180–1200) by Hartmann von Aue (c. 1160–c. 1210), major German adaptations of Chrétien de Troyes’ Arthurian romances. Hartmann’s works are major examples of the German adaptation of French Arthurian material, and they are major works of medieval German literature.
The German Arthurian romances are major works of medieval literature, and they have had a profound influence on the development of the Arthurian tradition in the modern era. The German writers brought a distinctive sensibility to the Arthurian material, and they created some of the most moving and most influential works of medieval literature.
The English Arthurian Romances
The English adaptations of the Arthurian legends are among the most important works of medieval English literature. The English writers drew on the French and German traditions, and they produced major works of medieval English literature that have been influential in the development of the Arthurian tradition. The major English Arthurian works include:
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (c. 1380), one of the greatest works of medieval English literature. The romance is the story of Sir Gawain’s quest to find the Green Knight and to receive the blow that he had given him, and it is a major exploration of the themes of chivalry, honor, and temptation. The poem is a major work of medieval English literature, and it is one of the most important works of the Alliterative Revival in English literature.
Le Morte d’Arthur (1485) by Thomas Malory (c. 1415–1471), the most comprehensive English version of the Arthurian legends. Malory’s work draws on the French and English sources to create a comprehensive account of the Arthurian story, and it is the basis for most modern English versions of the legends. Malory’s work is a major work of medieval English literature, and it is the foundation of the modern Arthurian tradition.
The Pearl (c. 1380), a religious poem by the same author as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, is a major work of medieval English religious poetry. The poem is a major work of medieval English literature, and it is one of the most important works of the Alliterative Revival in English literature.
The English Arthurian romances are major works of medieval literature, and they have had a profound influence on the development of the Arthurian tradition in the modern era. The English writers brought a distinctive sensibility to the Arthurian material, and they created some of the most influential works of medieval English literature.
The Themes of the Arthurian Legends
The Arthurian legends are characterized by a number of recurring themes that have been developed by the various writers of the tradition. The major themes include:
The Quest: The Arthurian legends are structured around the theme of the quest, and the knights of the Round Table are constantly engaged in quests for adventure, honor, and spiritual fulfillment. The quest for the Holy Grail is the most famous of the Arthurian quests, and it is a major symbol of the spiritual quest in the medieval period.
Courtly Love: The Arthurian legends are major expressions of the ideology of courtly love, and they explore the tensions between love, chivalry, and honor. The love affair between Lancelot and Ginevra is the most famous of the Arthurian love affairs, and it is a major symbol of the conflict between love and honor in the medieval period.
Chivalry and Honor: The Arthurian legends celebrate the chivalric virtues and explore the tensions between chivalry and the realities of the medieval world. The Round Table is a major symbol of the chivalric ideal, and the knights of the Round Table are major examples of the chivalric virtues in the medieval period.
The Fall of the Kingdom: The Arthurian legends are structured around the rise and fall of the Arthurian kingdom, and the tragedy of the fall is a major theme. The death of Arthur and the end of the Arthurian kingdom are major symbols of the transience of human glory and the inevitability of decline.
The Cultural Significance of the Arthurian Legends
The Arthurian legends have had a profound impact on the cultural life of the Western world. The legends have inspired major works of literature, art, music, and film, and they continue to inspire writers, artists, and filmmakers in the modern era. The Arthurian legends have been adapted to the cultural and political concerns of every period since the Middle Ages, and they have been used to explore a wide range of themes, from the chivalric ideals of the medieval period to the political and social concerns of the modern era.
The Arthurian legends have been particularly important for the development of the romance as a literary form. The Arthurian romance is one of the major literary forms of the medieval period, and it has been adapted to the modern novel and the modern film. The Arthurian legends are major sources for the development of the fantasy literature of the modern era, and they have been adapted by major writers such as T.H. White (The Once and Future King), C.S. Lewis (That Hideous Strength), John Steinbeck (The Acts of King Arthur and His Noble Knights), and Marion Zimmer Bradley (The Mists of Avalon).
The Arthurian legends have also been important for the development of the modern fantasy genre. The works of J.R.R. Tolkien (The Lord of the Rings), C.S. Lewis (The Chronicles of Narnia), and George R.R. Martin (A Song of Ice and Fire) have been influenced by the Arthurian legends, and the Arthurian themes and motifs are major elements of the modern fantasy tradition. The Arthurian legends are a major source of inspiration for the modern fantasy genre, and they continue to shape the imagination of writers and readers in the modern era.
The Arthurian legends are a major subject of modern historical, literary, and cultural study, and the scholarship on the legends has illuminated the rich literary and cultural heritage of the medieval world. The Arthurian legends are major symbols of European cultural identity, and they continue to inspire and influence the cultural life of the Western world in the modern era.
Sources
Principal sources used in this article:
- Simon Gaunt and Sarah Kay (eds.), The Troubadours: An Introduction (Cambridge, 1999).
Further reading:
- Robert Boenig, The Troubadours: An Introduction (Univ. of Notre Dame, 1996).
For a recent single-volume synthesis with full scholarly apparatus, see the relevant chapter of Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages (University of Toronto Press, 2014).