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The Chanson de Roland (“Song of Roland”) is the most famous and most important of the medieval chansons de geste — the long narrative poems that celebrated the heroic deeds of the great knights of Charlemagne and his paladins. Composed in the late eleventh century (the oldest surviving manuscript dates from the early twelfth century), the Chanson de Roland tells the story of the death of Roland, the commander of Charlemagne’s rearguard, in a battle in the Pyrenees, and it presents the heroic ideals of the feudal aristocracy in vivid and dramatic form. The Chanson de Roland is one of the masterpieces of medieval French literature, and it has been a major source of French national identity and a major influence on the development of European literature.
The standard English-language treatment is Ian Short, “Introduction to the Song of Roland” (2005). The Old French Chanson de Roland (Oxford manuscript, c. 1100) is the primary source. The page below treats the historical Roland of Roncevaux (778) and the literary Roland of the chanson de geste tradition.
The Composition of the Chanson de Roland
The Chanson de Roland was composed in the late eleventh century, and the oldest surviving manuscript dates from the early twelfth century (the Oxford manuscript, preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford). The Chanson was composed in Old French, and it was probably the work of a single poet — Turold — whose name is mentioned in the final line of the poem. Turold may have been a Norman or Anglo-Norman poet, and the Chanson was probably composed in the duchy of Normandy or in England in the decades after the Norman Conquest.
The Chanson de Roland was based on a historical event — the Battle of Roncevaux in 778, in which Roland, the commander of the rearguard of Charlemagne’s army, was killed by the Basques in the Pyrenees. The Chanson transformed the historical event into a legendary conflict between Christendom and Islam, with Roland dying in battle against the Muslim Saracens. The transformation of the historical event reflects the changing perceptions of the Spanish March in the eleventh century, when the Christian reconquest of Spain was underway and the Christians of the region were actively engaged in warfare with the Muslims of the peninsula.
The Chanson de Roland is the masterpiece of the chanson de geste tradition, but it is by no means the only example. The chanson de geste tradition produced dozens of works in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, including the Geste du Roi (cycle of Charlemagne), the Geste de Garin de Monglane (cycle of William of Orange), the Geste de Doon de Mayence (cycle of rebels), and the Chanson d’Antioche (cycle of the Crusades). The chansons de geste were a major form of medieval literature, and they were widely read and performed in the aristocratic courts and the towns of the period.
The Content of the Chanson de Roland
The Chanson de Roland is a long poem of about 4,000 lines in Old French, divided into stanzas of decasyllabic lines (later called laisses). The poem is structured around the last battle of Roland and the tragic consequences of his pride and recklessness. The poem is a dramatic narrative that combines heroic action with religious themes, and it presents the chivalric and Christian ideals of the medieval aristocracy in vivid and memorable form.
The plot of the Chanson is as follows. Charlemagne has conquered Spain after a long campaign, and only the Muslim king Marsile of Saragossa remains unconquered. Marsile sends envoys to Charlemagne with offers of submission and treasure if Charlemagne will withdraw from Spain. Charlemagne is inclined to accept the offer, but Roland opposes acceptance and argues for continuing the war. Roland’s stepfather, Ganelon, is appointed to deliver Charlemagne’s counter-offer to Marsile, and Ganelon is so enraged by Roland’s refusal to spare him the dangerous mission that he plots revenge against Roland.
Ganelon conspires with Marsile to betray Charlemagne’s rearguard to the Saracens, and Charlemagne accepts Ganelon’s false advice to appoint Roland as the commander of the rearguard. Roland commands a rearguard of twelve peers (the twelve paladins of Charlemagne), and the rearguard is attacked by a vast Saracen army at the pass of Roncevaux. Roland’s friend Oliver urges him to blow his horn to summon Charlemagne to return and rescue the rearguard, but Roland refuses out of pride and recklessness, and the rearguard fights valiantly but is overwhelmed by the Saracens. All the peers are killed, and Roland finally blows his horn to summon Charlemagne, but it is too late. Roland dies in the battle, and Charlemagne arrives too late to rescue the rearguard.
Charlemagne mourns the death of Roland and the peers, and he vows to avenge them. He returns to France and prepares a new campaign against the Saracens, and he defeats Marsile and his Saracen army in a decisive battle. The Chanson ends with the trial and execution of Ganelon, the baptism of the Saracen queen Bramimonde, and the death of Charlemagne (in the medieval legend, he is deposed and forced to retire to a monastery).
The Themes of the Chanson de Roland
The Chanson de Roland is rich in themes that reflect the ideals and anxieties of the medieval aristocracy. The major themes include:
Pride and Recklessness: Roland’s pride and recklessness are central to the tragedy of the Chanson. Roland refuses to blow his horn because he is too proud to ask for help, and his pride leads to the destruction of the rearguard. The Chanson portrays Roland as both heroic and flawed, and it explores the tensions between chivalric pride and chivalric duty.
Honor and Loyalty: Honor and loyalty are central to the chivalric ideals of the Chanson. Roland is honorable and loyal to Charlemagne, and he fights valiantly to the end in defense of the rearguard. The Chanson celebrates the chivalric virtues and explores the tensions between personal honor and public duty.
Treason and Betrayal: Ganelon’s treason is central to the plot of the Chanson, and it represents the sin of betrayal that was considered the most serious in the medieval aristocratic world. The Chanson explores the causes and consequences of treason, and it portrays the punishment of Ganelon as a just desert for his crime.
Christendom and Islam: The Chanson presents the conflict between Christendom and Islam as a fundamental struggle between good and evil. The Saracens are portrayed as pagans and worshippers of false gods (Apollo, Mahomet, and Termagant), and the Christians are portrayed as defenders of the true faith. The Chanson reflects the religious tensions of the period and the crusading ideal that was developing in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
The Cultural Significance of the Chanson de Roland
The Chanson de Roland is one of the masterpieces of medieval French literature, and it has had a profound influence on the development of French national identity and European literature. The Chanson has been a major source of French national identity since the medieval period, and it has been used to support French political and cultural claims in various periods. The Chanson was a major source of inspiration for the French Crusaders and the French monarchs of the medieval and early modern periods, and it remains a major symbol of French cultural heritage in the modern era.
The Chanson de Roland has also been a major influence on the development of European literature and culture. The Chanson has been a major source of inspiration for the romances of the High Middle Ages, the epics of the Renaissance, and the literary and musical works of the modern era. The Chanson has inspired major works of literature, art, and music, and it continues to shape the imagination of writers, artists, and musicians in the modern era.
The Chanson de Roland is a major subject of modern literary and cultural study, and the scholarship on the Chanson has illuminated the rich literary and cultural heritage of the medieval world. The Chanson is commemorated in numerous monuments, museums, and cultural events in France and in other parts of Europe, and it continues to shape the identity of the regions associated with the legends — Roncesvalles in the Pyrenees, Aachen in Germany, Paris in France. The Chanson is a major subject of European cultural heritage, and it is a subject of ongoing debate in the modern era.
Sources
Principal sources used in this article:
- Simon Gaunt and Sarah Kay (eds.), The Troubadours: An Introduction (Cambridge, 1999).
Further reading:
- Robert Boenig, The Troubadours: An Introduction (Univ. of Notre Dame, 1996).
For a recent single-volume synthesis with full scholarly apparatus, see the relevant chapter of Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages (University of Toronto Press, 2014).