Romanesque Architecture in the Middle Ages

The Romanesque style was the first great architectural style of medieval Europe, and it dominated the architecture of Western Europe from the mid-tenth century to the mid-twelfth century. The Romanesque style was characterized by its massive walls, its rounded arches, its barrel vaults, and its fortress-like appearance, and it was the dominant style of the great pilgrimage churches and monasteries of the period. The Romanesque style was named in the nineteenth century by scholars who saw it as a continuation of the Roman tradition, and the medieval builders who created these churches would not have recognized the term. The Romanesque style laid the foundations for the Gothic style that would replace it in the mid-twelfth century, and it produced some of the most impressive buildings of the medieval world.

The standard treatment is Kenneth J. Conant, “Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture, 800–1200” (Yale, 1959; repr. 1992). The page below uses the major pilgrimage churches (Santiago de Compostela, Saint-Sernin at Toulouse, the abbey churches of the Cistercians) as the primary material.

The Origins of Romanesque Architecture

The origins of Romanesque architecture are rooted in the architectural traditions of the early Middle Ages and the revival of monumental building in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century had led to a decline in monumental building in Western Europe, and the great cathedrals and basilicas of the Roman world fell into ruin or were replaced by smaller wooden churches. By the tenth century, however, the conditions of stability and prosperity that followed the end of the Viking, Magyar, and Saracen invasions allowed for a revival of monumental building, and the great pilgrimage routes of the period stimulated the construction of new churches and monasteries.

The Romanesque style emerged in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries, as builders in different parts of Europe developed new techniques for constructing large stone buildings. The rounded arch was a feature borrowed from Roman architecture, and it became the defining feature of the style. The barrel vault was developed to cover the naves of the great churches, and it required massive walls and piers to support its weight. The thick walls and small windows of the Romanesque style gave the buildings a fortress-like appearance, and they were a reflection of both the engineering requirements of the technology and the unsettled conditions of the period.

The Romanesque style was regional in character, with distinct local traditions in Lombard Italy, Norman England and Normandy, Rhenish Germany, Tuscan Italy, and other parts of Europe. Yet the style shared a number of common features: the use of the rounded arch (a feature borrowed from Roman architecture), the barrel vault, the thick walls, the small windows, the massive piers, the crenellated walls, the tribunes and ambulatories for the pilgrims who visited the churches. The regional diversity of the Romanesque style reflects the regional traditions of the various parts of Europe, but the underlying principles were common to all.

The Pilgrimage Churches

The pilgrimage churches were among the most important Romanesque buildings. The cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in northwestern Spain, the destination of one of the major medieval pilgrimages, was rebuilt in the Romanesque style in the late eleventh century. The church of Sainte-Foy at Conques in southern France, with its remarkable tympanum depicting the Last Judgment, is one of the masterpieces of the period. The Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy, the head of the great Cluniac monastic order, was the largest church in Christendom before its destruction during the French Revolution.

The pilgrimage churches were designed to accommodate the large numbers of pilgrims who visited the major shrines of medieval Europe. The churches typically had a long nave with side aisles, an ambulatory that allowed pilgrims to circulate around the choir, and multiple chapels that housed the relics and the altars. The churches were often decorated with elaborate sculptural programs, and the tympana of the doorways typically depicted scenes of Christian salvation — the Last Judgment, the Majesty of Christ, the lives of the saints. The churches were major centers of religious life, and they were major expressions of the religious and artistic ideals of the period.

The Romanesque churches were massive and imposing structures, with thick walls and small windows that gave them a fortress-like appearance. The walls were typically faced with stone or brick, and the roofs were typically covered with slate or tile. The interiors were often dark, with light admitted only through the small windows and the doors, and they were typically decorated with frescoes on the walls and sculpture on the capitals and the tympana. The decoration of the Romanesque churches was elaborate and symbolic, with biblical scenes, allegorical figures, and monstrous creatures all playing a role in the visual program.

The Regional Variants of Romanesque Architecture

The Romanesque style was regional in character, with distinct local traditions in different parts of Europe. The Lombard style of northern Italy was characterized by its use of brick and its decorative arcading, and it was developed in the great monasteries and cathedrals of the Po Valley. The Norman style of England and Normandy was characterized by its massive square towers and its deep doorways, and it was developed in the great cathedrals and castles of the Norman world. The Rhenish style of Germany was characterized by its twin-towered facades and its elaborate interior decoration, and it was developed in the great cathedrals of the Rhine Valley. The Tuscan style of central Italy was characterized by its striped marble facades and its painted interiors, and it was developed in the great cathedrals of Pisa, Florence, and Siena.

The Romanesque style was also characterized by the development of new engineering techniques that allowed for the construction of larger and more complex buildings. The barrel vault of the early Romanesque was gradually replaced by the groin vault, which distributed the weight of the ceiling more efficiently and allowed for larger windows. The ribbed vault, which was developed in the late eleventh century, was an even more efficient system that would eventually lead to the Gothic style. The development of the groin vault and the ribbed vault was a major factor in the transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic style.

The Romanesque style was also characterized by the development of new sculptural and decorative techniques. The sculpture of the Romanesque period was often stylized and symbolic, with biblical scenes, allegorical figures, and monstrous creatures all playing a role in the visual program. The capitals of the columns were often carved with elaborate decorative motifs, and the tympana of the doorways were often filled with sculptural compositions. The decoration of the Romanesque churches was a major expression of the religious and artistic ideals of the period, and it laid the foundations for the Gothic sculpture that would replace it in the mid-twelfth century.

The Great Romanesque Buildings of Europe

The great Romanesque buildings of Europe are among the most impressive architectural achievements of the medieval world. The cathedral of Speyer in Germany, begun in 1030 and rebuilt in the late eleventh century, is one of the largest Romanesque churches in Europe. The cathedral of Pisa in Italy, with its baptistery, campanile (the famous Leaning Tower), and cathedral, is one of the most impressive Romanesque complexes. The cathedral of Modena in Italy, with its sculptural program by Wiligelmo, is one of the masterpieces of the Romanesque style.

The cathedrals of Normandy — Caen, Rouen, Bayeux — were major Romanesque buildings that were built by William the Conqueror and his successors. The Abbey of Saint-Étienne at Caen, begun in 1063, is a major example of the Norman Romanesque style, and it was the burial place of William the Conqueror. The cathedral of Durham in England, with its massive piers and its decorative chevron carving, is one of the great Romanesque buildings of England. The cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Spain, with its Pórtico de la Gloria (a later Gothic addition), is the destination of one of the major medieval pilgrimages.

The cathedrals of Lombardy — Modena, Parma, Piacenza, Cremona — were major Romanesque buildings that were developed by the architects of the region, including the famous architect Lanfranco and the sculptor Wiligelmo. The cathedrals of the Rhine Valley — Mainz, Worms, Speyer, Trier — were major Romanesque buildings that were developed by the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire and the bishops of the region. The cathedrals of Tuscany — Pisa, Lucca, Pistoia, Prato — were major Romanesque buildings that were developed by the cities of the region.

The Decoration of Romanesque Churches

The decoration of Romanesque churches was elaborate and symbolic, and it played a major role in the religious and artistic life of the period. The tympanum above the main portal was typically filled with a sculptured representation of the Last Judgment, the Majesty of Christ, or some other scene of Christian salvation. The tympanum of the Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy at Conques, depicting the Last Judgment, is one of the masterpieces of the period. The tympanum of the cathedral of Autun, sculpted by Gislebertus around 1130, is another masterpiece of the period.

The capitals of the columns were typically carved with figures of saints, monsters, biblical scenes, or allegorical subjects. The capital was a major element of the Romanesque decorative program, and the carving of the capitals was a major artistic activity. The capitals of the cloister of Santo Domingo de Silos in Spain, the capitals of the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral, and the capitals of the church of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse are major examples of the Romanesque capital carving.

The interior walls of the Romanesque churches were often covered with frescoes depicting biblical scenes and the lives of the saints. The frescoes of the church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe in France, depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments, are among the most impressive Romanesque frescoes to survive. The frescoes of the crypt of Anagni in Italy, the frescoes of the church of San Clemente in Rome, and the frescoes of the church of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse are major examples of Romanesque fresco painting.

The Transition to the Gothic Style

The transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic style was a gradual process that unfolded over the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. The transition was stimulated by the development of new engineering techniques — the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, and the flying buttress — that allowed builders to construct taller, lighter, and more flexible buildings than ever before. The transition was also stimulated by the changing aesthetic ideals of the period, which favored lightness, transparency, and verticality over the massiveness and solidity of the Romanesque style.

The first great Gothic building was the choir of the Abbey of Saint-Denis, north of Paris, rebuilt under the direction of Abbot Suger in the 1140s. The choir of Saint-Denis was a major departure from the Romanesque style, and it established the principles of the Gothic style — the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, and the large windows — that would dominate European architecture for the next three centuries. The cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris, begun in 1163, was the first major Gothic cathedral and the model for the Gothic style across Europe. The Gothic style gradually replaced the Romanesque style in the major cathedrals and churches of Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and the Romanesque style was gradually reduced to the smaller churches and chapels of the region.

The Legacy of Romanesque Architecture

The legacy of Romanesque architecture is significant. The Romanesque style was the first great architectural style of medieval Europe, and it produced some of the most impressive buildings of the medieval world. The Romanesque style laid the foundations for the Gothic style that would replace it, and it contributed to the development of the engineering and artistic techniques that shaped the European architectural tradition. The Romanesque style is a major subject of modern historical and architectural study, and it is a subject of ongoing research in the modern era.

The Romanesque buildings of Europe are major tourist attractions and major subjects of popular and academic interest. The great Romanesque cathedrals and churches of Europe are major monuments of the medieval world, and they continue to inspire awe and admiration in the modern era. The Romanesque style is a major subject of European cultural heritage, and it is a subject of ongoing debate in the modern era.

Sources

Principal sources used in this article:

Otto von Simson, The Gothic Cathedral (Princeton, 1956; 3rd ed. 1988).

Further reading:

Kenneth J. Conant, Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture, 800–1200 (Yale, 1959; repr. 1992).

For a recent single-volume synthesis with full scholarly apparatus, see the relevant chapter of Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages (University of Toronto Press, 2014).