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The medieval kings of the High Middle Ages used a wide variety of methods to consolidate and extend their power, including military force, marriage alliances, diplomacy, law, and the development of royal administration. The process of royal consolidation was a gradual and complex one, and it varied significantly from kingdom to kingdom and from century to century. Yet by the end of the High Middle Ages, the medieval king had emerged as the dominant political figure in European society, and the medieval kingdom had become the basic unit of European political organization.
The standard English-language accounts are Jean Dunbabin, “France in the Making, 843–1180” (1985), and Robert Bartlett, “England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings” (2000). The two kingdoms are the best-documented cases; the German and Iberian trajectories are different in detail but share the same broad arc of the substitution of royal officers for the great feudatories.
Military Force
Military force was the most obvious method of royal consolidation, and it was used by medieval kings to subdue rebellious lords, to conquer new territories, and to defend the realm against external enemies. The medieval king was the supreme military leader of his realm, and he led his armies in person in battle. The king commanded the feudal levy — the obligation of his vassals to provide military service — and he supplemented this levy with paid soldiers and mercenaries. The king also maintained a standing army in the form of the royal household troops and the garrisons of the royal castles.
The military career of a medieval king was often complex and demanding. The king had to defend his realm against external enemies — rival kings, invading armies, marauding bands — and he had to subdue rebellious lords and maintain order within his realm. The king had to plan military campaigns, to raise armies, to lead soldiers in battle, and to negotiate treaties after battle. The military career of a medieval king was a major part of his role, and it consumed a significant portion of his time and resources.
Marriage Alliances
Marriage alliances were a major tool of royal consolidation, and medieval kings used marriage to form alliances with other rulers, to acquire territories and claims, and to produce legitimate heirs to the throne. The marriage of a king’s daughter to a rival ruler or a powerful lord was a common way of forming alliances, and the marriage of a king to a foreign princess was a way of acquiring territories and claims. The marriage of a king’s son to a foreign princess was a way of producing legitimate heirs and maintaining dynastic continuity.
The marriage of a medieval king was a major political event, and it was typically negotiated between the rulers of the two kingdoms or territories involved. The marriage was often accompanied by a dowry — a gift of money, land, or goods from the bride’s family to the groom’s family — and by a dower — a gift of money or land from the groom’s family to the bride for her support after the marriage. The marriage was often sealed by a treaty that specified the terms of the alliance and the rights and obligations of the two parties.
Diplomacy
Diplomacy was a major tool of royal consolidation, and medieval kings used diplomacy to form alliances, to negotiate treaties, to resolve disputes, and to gather information. The medieval king maintained a network of diplomats, envoys, and agents who traveled between the courts of Europe and who negotiated on his behalf. The diplomats were often high-ranking clergy — bishops, archbishops, cardinals — who had the education and the prestige to negotiate with the rulers of other kingdoms.
The medieval diplomatic practice was complex and sophisticated, and it involved a variety of instruments and procedures. The treaty was a formal agreement between two or more rulers, and it was typically sealed with an oath and a ceremony. The envoy was a personal representative of the ruler, and he carried letters of credence that identified him as the ruler’s representative and that authorized him to negotiate on the ruler’s behalf. The papal legate was a special envoy of the pope, and he played a major role in the diplomacy of the period.
Law and Administration
Law and administration were major tools of royal consolidation, and medieval kings used the law to extend their authority and to limit the power of the feudal lords. The medieval king developed a sophisticated system of royal courts that exercised jurisdiction over a wide range of cases and that enforced the royal will. The royal courts of England — the Court of King’s Bench, the Court of Common Pleas, and the Court of Exchequer — were major institutions of royal government, and they developed the common law that became the basis of the English legal system. The parlement of Paris, the Royal Audiencia of Castile, and the Reichskammergericht of the Holy Roman Empire were similar institutions in other kingdoms.
The medieval king also developed a sophisticated system of royal administration that included the chancery (which produced the royal documents), the exchequer (which managed the royal finances), and the household (which performed the various administrative functions of the royal court). The royal administration grew increasingly complex and specialized over the medieval period, and it required a large number of trained officials — clerks, notaries, judges, accountants — to operate.
The Use of Religion
Religion was a major tool of royal consolidation, and medieval kings used religion to legitimize their rule and to extend their authority. The coronation ceremony was a religious event that anointed the king with holy oil and that gave him a sacred character. The king was believed to be the vicar of God in his realm, and he had a religious duty to maintain order, to protect the Church, and to defend the faith. The king also claimed the power to heal the king’s evil (scrofula) by his touch, and the royal touch was a major symbol of the sacred character of the king in France and England.
The king also used the Church to extend his authority. The king nominated bishops and abbots, and he collected taxes from the Church. The king also used the Church courts to enforce the law, and he used the Church clergy to educate his officials and to staff his administration. The relationship between the king and the Church was complex and sometimes conflictual, but the king generally succeeded in using the Church to extend his authority.
Sources
Principal sources used in this article:
- Robert Bartlett, England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings (Oxford, 2000).
Further reading:
- Jean Dunbabin, France in the Making, 843–1180 (Oxford, 1985).
For a recent single-volume synthesis with full scholarly apparatus, see the relevant chapter of Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages (University of Toronto Press, 2014).