Founding of the University of Bologna

The University of Bologna, founded around 1088, is generally considered the oldest university in Europe and one of the most influential institutions of higher learning in the history of Western civilization. The University emerged from the study of Roman law in the city of Bologna, and it was the first institution to organize the study of law in a systematic way. The University was organized as a corporation of students, who hired the masters to teach them and who made the rules of the institution. The University of Bologna became the model for the student-run universities of southern Europe, and it set the standard for the organization of higher learning in the medieval West.

The standard English-language treatment is Hastings Rashdall (revised by F. M. Powicke and A. B. Emden), “The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages” (Oxford, 1936). The Chartularium Studii Bononiensis (ed. C. Malagola, 1888) is the primary source. The page below treats the foundation in the late eleventh century and the long rivalry with the University of Paris in the next century.

The Origins of the University

The origins of the University of Bologna are rooted in the rediscovery of Roman law in the late eleventh century. The Corpus Juris Civilis of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, which had been largely unknown in Western Europe for several centuries, was rediscovered around 1070 in the library of the cathedral of Pisa. The rediscovery of the Corpus Juris Civilis created a sensation in the legal and intellectual circles of Italy, and it stimulated a major revival of the study of Roman law in the Italian cities.

The city of Bologna was one of the major centers of the revival of Roman law. A school of law was established in Bologna by Pepo (c. 1070) and was developed by Irnerius (c. 1080–1140), who is often considered the founder of the school of Bologna. The school of Bologna attracted students from all over Europe, and it became the most famous school of law in the Western world. The reputation of the school was enhanced by the work of Gratian, a monk who compiled the Decretum (c. 1140), a systematic collection of canon law that became the foundational text of medieval canon law.

The school of Bologna gradually developed into a university as the students organized themselves into a corporation (the universitas scholarium) and the masters organized themselves into a college. The students were the dominant force in the early university, and they hired the masters, paid their salaries, and made the rules of the institution. The students also organized themselves by region of origin, forming the nations (the nationes) that competed for power in the university government. The students also established the Rector, the chief officer of the university, who was typically a student elected by the students.

The Curriculum of the University

The curriculum of the University of Bologna was organized around the study of law — both Roman law (the Corpus Juris Civilis of Justinian) and canon law (the Decretum of Gratian and the Decretales of the popes). The study of law was the primary focus of the university, and the university became the most important center of legal study in the Western world. The study of law required a long period of training — typically seven to ten years — before the student could qualify for the doctorate, and the university developed a sophisticated system of lectures, disputations, and examinations to train the students in the law.

The study of law at Bologna was based on the exegetical method developed by the Bolognese masters. The master would read a text of the Corpus Juris Civilis or the Decretum and provide a commentary on the text, explaining the meaning of the text and its application to contemporary legal problems. The commentary was often highly technical and scholarly, and the masters developed a sophisticated apparatus of glosses, distinctions, and questions to analyze the texts. The commentaries of the Bolognese masters — the Glossa Ordinaria of Accursius (c. 1182–1260) for the Corpus Juris Civilis and the Glossa Ordinaria of Johannes Teutonicus (c. 1170–1245) for the Decretum — became the standard references for the study of law throughout the medieval period.

The curriculum of the University of Bologna was not limited to law. The university also offered courses in theology, medicine, arts, and philosophy, although the study of law was the primary focus of the institution. The faculty of arts was the largest faculty, and it offered courses in the seven liberal arts (the trivium and the quadrivium) and in philosophy. The faculty of medicine was established in the thirteenth century, and it offered courses in the medical texts of the Greek and Arab traditions. The faculty of theology was the least developed of the higher faculties, and the university was primarily a law school until the fourteenth century.

The Organization of the University

The organization of the University of Bologna was distinctive and influential. The university was organized as a corporation of students (the universitas scholarium), and the students were the dominant force in the institution. The students hired the masters, paid their salaries, and made the rules of the institution. The students also organized themselves by region of origin, forming the nations (the nationes) that competed for power in the university government.

The nations of the University of Bologna were the basic units of student organization. The students were originally divided into two nations — the Cismontane (those from north of the Alps) and the Ultramontane (those from south of the Alps, mainly Italians) — and they were later divided into more nations as the university grew. The nations competed for power in the university, and the Rectors of the university were elected from the nations. The nations also maintained their own chaplaincies, hospitals, and burial grounds, and they served as social and support networks for the students from their regions.

The Rector was the chief officer of the university, and he was typically a student elected by the students. The Rector presided over the university assembly, represented the university in its dealings with external authorities, and enforced the rules of the institution. The Rector was assisted by a council of students and by the officials of the various nations. The masters were organized in a collegium (college), and they were subject to the authority of the Rector and the nations. The masters could be fined, suspended, or dismissed by the Rector for violations of the rules.

The Reputation of the University

The University of Bologna quickly developed a reputation as the leading center of legal study in Europe, and it attracted students from all over the Western world. The students came from Italy, France, Germany, England, Spain, Hungary, and other parts of Europe, and they brought with them the languages, customs, and ideas of their home regions. The students also brought money, and the university was a major economic actor in the city of Bologna.

The reputation of the University of Bologna was enhanced by the work of its most famous masters. Irnerius (c. 1080–1140) was the founder of the school of law and a major figure in the revival of Roman law. Gratian (c. 1100–1160) was the compiler of the Decretum and the founder of the science of canon law. Accursius (c. 1182–1260) was the compiler of the Glossa Ordinaria on the Corpus Juris Civilis, the standard reference for the study of Roman law. Bartolus of Sassoferrato (1313–1357) was the most famous jurist of the later Middle Ages, and his commentaries on the Corpus Juris Civilis were the standard references for the study of law in the late medieval period.

The University of Bologna was a major center of intellectual life in the medieval world, and its masters and students were major figures in the legal, religious, and political life of the period. The university produced the lawyers who served the kings and popes of Europe, the judges who served the courts of Europe, and the administrators who served the governments of Europe. The university’s influence on the development of European law and government was immense, and the university played a major role in the formation of the legal and political institutions of the Western world.

The Spread of the University Model

The University of Bologna was the model for the student-run universities of southern Europe. The University of Padua (founded 1222) was founded by a group of students who left Bologna in a dispute, and it followed the Bolognese model of student governance. The University of Naples (founded 1224) was founded by Emperor Frederick II as a state university, and it was organized on the Bolognese model. The University of Salamanca (founded c. 1218) in Spain was organized on the Bolognese model, and it became the major university of the Iberian Peninsula. The University of Toulouse (founded 1229) was organized on the Bolognese model, and it became the major university of southern France.

The University of Bologna also influenced the development of the master-run universities of northern Europe, including the University of Paris and the University of Oxford. The Bolognese model of student governance was not followed in the northern universities, but the Bolognese emphasis on the study of law, the use of the scholastic method, and the organization of the curriculum was a major influence on the development of the northern universities. The University of Bologna was a major model for the development of higher learning in the Western world, and its influence on the medieval university was immense.

The Decline of the University

The decline of the University of Bologna began in the late medieval and early modern periods. The Italian Wars of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries disrupted the university’s operations, and the rise of humanism in the Italian cities shifted the intellectual interests of the period away from the scholastic methods of the medieval university. The university also faced competition from other universities, including the University of Padua, which attracted many students away from Bologna in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

The university was reformed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and it continued to operate as a major Italian university in the early modern period. The university’s reputation declined in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and it was overshadowed by the great universities of northern Europe. The Napoleonic reforms of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries secularized the university and reorganized it as a modern research university, and the university regained much of its former prestige in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The University of Bologna is a major Italian university in the modern era, and it continues to be a major center of higher learning and research.

The Legacy of the University

The legacy of the University of Bologna is immense. The University was the oldest university in Europe, and it set the standard for the organization of higher learning in the Western world. The University was a major center of legal study, and it produced the lawyers, judges, and administrators who served the governments of Europe. The University was also a major center of intellectual life, and it contributed to the development of the scholastic method, the study of Roman and canon law, and the training of the medieval clergy and laity. The University of Bologna is a major subject of modern historical and educational study, and it is a subject of ongoing research in the modern era. The University of Bologna is a major symbol of European higher education, and it continues to inspire and influence the development of universities in the modern world.

Sources

Principal sources used in this article:

Jacques Verger, Les Universités au Moyen Âge (PUF, 1973).

Further reading:

Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, new ed. by F. M. Powicke and A. B. Emden (Oxford, 1936).

For a recent single-volume synthesis with full scholarly apparatus, see the relevant chapter of Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages (University of Toronto Press, 2014).